This guide outlines informed consent in psychology, APA ethics informed consent elements, deception in psychology research, and debriefing in psychology studies alongside our research methods resources and our walkthrough on how to read a psychology study.

Under 45 CFR 46.102(j), minimal risk means that the probability and magnitude of harm or discomfort anticipated in the research are not greater in and of themselves than those ordinarily encountered in daily life or during the performance of routine physical or psychological examinations or tests.

Under 45 CFR 46.102(l), research means a systematic investigation, including research development, testing, and evaluation, designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge.

Respecting research participants’ privacy includes maintaining confidentiality, which is an agreement not to disclose participants’ personal information without their consent or appropriate legal authorization, or collecting data with anonymity, which is when their name and other personally identifiable information is not collected at all.

Ethical Stage Governing Provision Core Participant Protection
Institutional protocol review APA Standard 8.01 When institutional approval is required, psychologists provide accurate information about their research proposals and obtain approval prior to conducting the research.
Pre-study decision making 45 CFR 46.116(a)(4) The prospective subject or the legally authorized representative must be provided with the information that a reasonable person would want to have in order to make an informed decision about whether to participate, and an opportunity to discuss that information.
Baseline risk benchmark 45 CFR 46.102(j) Minimal risk means that the probability and magnitude of harm or discomfort anticipated in the research are not greater in and of themselves than those ordinarily encountered in daily life or during the performance of routine physical or psychological examinations or tests.
Deception justification APA Standard 8.07(a) Psychologists do not conduct a study involving deception unless they have determined that the use of deceptive techniques is justified by the study’s significant prospective scientific, educational, or applied value and that effective nondeceptive alternative procedures are not feasible.
Pain and distress boundary APA Standard 8.07(b) Psychologists do not deceive prospective participants about research that is reasonably expected to cause physical pain or severe emotional distress.
Post-study debriefing APA Standard 8.08 Psychologists provide a prompt opportunity for participants to obtain appropriate information about the nature, results, and conclusions of the research and take reasonable steps to correct any misconceptions, and if scientific or humane values justify delaying or withholding this information, they take reasonable measures to reduce the risk of harm.

Historical Foundations and Institutional Review Board Oversight

In the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, begun in 1932 and discontinued in 1972 after 40 years and leading directly to the National Research Act of 1974, 600 men agreed to participate in exchange for free medical care, meals, and burial insurance, and were never informed that they had syphilis or treated with penicillin after it was recognized as an effective treatment in 1947.

The Nuremberg Code was a set of 10 principles written in 1947, the APA Ethics Code was first published in 1953 and includes about 150 specific ethical standards, the Declaration of Helsinki was created in 1964, and the Belmont Report in 1978 recognized three ethical principles for research on humans: Seeking Justice, Respect for Persons, and Beneficence.

The Declaration of Helsinki in 1964 added that research with human participants should be based on a written protocol reviewed by an independent committee, and under the Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects in 1991, universities, hospitals, and other institutions that receive federal support must establish an institutional review board (IRB) to review research protocols for potential ethical problems.

An institutional review board (IRB) must consist of at least five people with varying backgrounds, including members of different professions, scientists and nonscientists, men and women, and at least one person not otherwise affiliated with the institution.

Under APA Standard 8.01, when institutional approval is required, psychologists provide accurate information about their research proposals and obtain approval prior to conducting the research.

Under 45 CFR 46.116(a)(4), the prospective subject or the legally authorized representative must be provided with the information that a reasonable person would want to have in order to make an informed decision about whether to participate, and an opportunity to discuss that information.

Under 45 CFR 46.116(a)(5)(i), informed consent must begin with a concise and focused presentation of the key information that is most likely to assist a prospective subject or legally authorized representative in understanding the reasons why one might or might not want to participate in the research.

Under 45 CFR 46.116(a)(6), no informed consent may include any exculpatory language through which the subject or legally authorized representative is made to waive or appear to waive any of the subject’s legal rights, or releases the investigator, the sponsor, the institution, or its agents from liability for negligence.

Close-up of a wooden university consultation table with a clipboard, fountain pen, reading glasses, and locked metal file box Photograph of a wooden consultation desk with a clipboard, fountain pen, reading glasses, and a locked metal file box.

Core Disclosures Under APA Ethics and Federal Rules

  • Under APA Standard 8.02(a)(1), when obtaining informed consent as required in Standard 3.10, psychologists inform participants about (1) the purpose of the research, expected duration, and procedures.
  • Under APA Standard 8.02(a), psychologists inform participants about (2) their right to decline to participate and to withdraw once participation has begun, and (3) the foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing.
  • Under APA Standard 8.02(a), psychologists inform participants about (4) reasonably foreseeable factors that may influence their willingness to participate such as potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects, and (5) any prospective research benefits.
  • Under APA Standard 8.02(a), psychologists inform participants about (6) limits of confidentiality, (7) incentives for participation, and (8) whom to contact for questions about the research and research participants’ rights.
  • Under 45 CFR 46.116(b)(1)–(4), basic elements of informed consent include (1) a statement that the study involves research, purposes, expected duration, procedures, and identification of experimental procedures, (2) reasonably foreseeable risks or discomforts, (3) benefits, and (4) appropriate alternative procedures or courses of treatment.
  • Under 45 CFR 46.116(b)(5)–(8), basic elements of informed consent include (5) extent of confidentiality of records, (6) for research involving more than minimal risk, explanation of any compensation and medical treatments if injury occurs, (7) whom to contact for pertinent questions, and (8) a statement that participation is voluntary and discontinuation involves no penalty.
  • Under 45 CFR 46.116(b)(9), research involving the collection of identifiable private information or identifiable biospecimens must include a statement on whether identifiers might be removed and the information or biospecimens used or distributed for future research studies without additional informed consent, or whether they will not be used even if identifiers are removed.

Experimental Intervention Disclosures, Minors, and Literacy Checks

Under APA Standard 8.02(b), psychologists conducting intervention research involving experimental treatments clarify at the outset: (1) the experimental nature of the treatment, (2) the services that will or will not be available to the control group(s), and (3) the means by which assignment to treatment and control groups will be made.

Under APA Standard 8.02(b), intervention research consent also clarifies (4) available treatment alternatives if an individual does not wish to participate or wishes to withdraw, and (5) compensation for or monetary costs of participating.

In OpenStax Psychology 2e section 2.4, each participant must sign an informed consent form before participating in the experiment, and in cases where research participants are under the age of 18, the parents or legal guardians are required to sign the informed consent form.

Under Section 4.1 of the BPS Code of Human Research Ethics, it is recommended that at least one pilot test of the processes for informing and debriefing participants be carried out with a person naïve to the research and with a literacy/understanding level at the lower end of the range expected in the planned research sample.

In clinical psychotherapy practice, according to Barnett (2015), essential informed consent information includes the nature and anticipated course of the proposed evaluation or treatment, the psychotherapist’s credentials, the client’s right to refuse or withdraw without penalty, reasonably available treatment options, fees and financial arrangements including billing and insurance, confidentiality and mandatory reporting requirements, and the involvement of any third parties.

Consent Context Governing Ethics Provision Required Disclosures to the Individual
General research participation APA Standard 8.02(a)(1) and Standard 3.10 Psychologists inform participants about (1) the purpose of the research, expected duration, and procedures.
Experimental treatment trials APA Standard 8.02(b)(1)–(3) Psychologists conducting intervention research involving experimental treatments clarify at the outset (1) the experimental nature of the treatment, (2) the services that will or will not be available to the control group(s), and (3) the means by which assignment to treatment and control groups will be made.
Intervention alternatives and costs APA Standard 8.02(b)(4)–(5) Intervention research consent clarifies (4) available treatment alternatives if an individual does not wish to participate or wishes to withdraw, and (5) compensation for or monetary costs of participating.
Clinical psychotherapy services Barnett (2015) clinical guidance Essential informed consent information includes the nature and anticipated course of the proposed evaluation or treatment, the psychotherapist’s credentials, the client’s right to refuse or withdraw without penalty, reasonably available treatment options, fees and financial arrangements including billing and insurance, confidentiality and mandatory reporting requirements, and the involvement of any third parties.

Under APA Standard 8.04, psychologists protect clients/patients, students, or subordinates from adverse consequences of declining or withdrawing, and when research participation is a course requirement or extra credit opportunity, the prospective participant is given the choice of equitable alternative activities.

Under APA Standard 8.06(a), psychologists make reasonable efforts to avoid offering excessive or inappropriate financial or other inducements for research participation when such inducements are likely to coerce participation.

Under TCPS 2 (2022) Article 3.1(b), a participant should not suffer any disadvantage or reprisal for withdrawing, nor should any payment due prior to the point of withdrawal be withheld; if the research project used a lump-sum incentive, the participant is entitled to the entire amount, and if a payment schedule is used, participants shall be paid in proportion to their participation.

  • Under APA Standard 8.05(1)(a), psychologists may dispense with informed consent where research would not reasonably be assumed to create distress or harm and involves the study of normal educational practices, curricula, or classroom management methods conducted in educational settings.
  • Under APA Standard 8.05(1)(b), psychologists may dispense with informed consent for anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic observations, or archival research for which disclosure of responses would not place participants at risk of criminal or civil liability or damage their financial standing, employability, or reputation, and confidentiality is protected.
  • Under APA Standard 8.05(1)(c) and (2), psychologists may dispense with informed consent for studies of factors related to job or organization effectiveness conducted in organizational settings where there is no risk to employability and confidentiality is protected, or where otherwise permitted by law or federal or institutional regulations.
  • Under 45 CFR 46.116(f)(3), for an IRB to waive or alter consent, it must find and document five criteria: (i) no more than minimal risk, (ii) the research could not practicably be carried out without the waiver or alteration, (iii) if using identifiable private information or biospecimens, it could not practicably be carried out without using them in an identifiable format, (iv) no adverse effect on subjects’ rights and welfare, and (v) providing additional pertinent information after participation whenever appropriate.
  • Under 45 CFR 46.117(c)(1), an IRB may waive the requirement to obtain a signed informed consent form if (i) the only record linking the subject and the research would be the informed consent form and the principal risk is potential harm from a breach of confidentiality, and each subject will be asked whether the subject wants documentation linking the subject with the research and the subject’s wishes will govern, (ii) the research presents no more than minimal risk and involves no procedures for which written consent is normally required outside of the research context, or (iii) subjects or legally authorized representatives are members of a distinct cultural group or community in which signing forms is not the norm, the research presents no more than minimal risk of harm to subjects, and there is an appropriate alternative mechanism for documenting that informed consent was obtained.

Deception in Psychology Research: Commission Versus Omission and Classic Studies

For related classroom case materials, see our social psychology classroom case activities.

In OpenStax Psychology 2e section 2.4, deception involves purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment, and in cases where deception is involved, participants must receive a full debriefing upon conclusion of the study—complete, honest information about the purpose of the experiment, how the data collected will be used, the reasons why deception was necessary, and how to obtain additional information.

In Kimmel’s content analyses of social psychology journals, studies utilizing active deception, meaning deception by commission or blatantly misleading the participant, showed a modest increase to 40 per cent and up to 35 per cent of studies employed passive deceptions, meaning deception by omission or purposely withholding relevant information, compared to nearly 70 per cent in 1975.

Under Section 7 of the BPS Code of Human Research Ethics, there is a difference between withholding some of the details of the hypothesis under test and deliberately falsely informing the participants of the purpose of the research, especially if the information given implies a more benign topic of study than is in fact the case.

Regulatory Boundaries on Deceptive Designs and Recording

Under APA Standard 8.07(a), psychologists do not conduct a study involving deception unless they have determined that the use of deceptive techniques is justified by the study’s significant prospective scientific, educational, or applied value and that effective nondeceptive alternative procedures are not feasible.

Under APA Standard 8.07(b), psychologists do not deceive prospective participants about research that is reasonably expected to cause physical pain or severe emotional distress.

Under APA Standard 8.03, psychologists obtain informed consent prior to recording voices or images unless (1) the research consists solely of naturalistic observations in public places where recording is not anticipated to cause personal identification or harm, or (2) the design includes deception and consent for the use of the recording is obtained during debriefing.

Under 45 CFR 46.104(d)(3)(ii), benign behavioral interventions are brief in duration, harmless, painless, not physically invasive, not likely to have a significant adverse lasting impact on the subjects, and the investigator has no reason to think the subjects will find the interventions offensive or embarrassing.

Under 45 CFR 46.104(d)(3)(iii), if benign behavioral intervention research involves deceiving the subjects regarding the nature or purposes of the research, the exemption is not applicable unless the subject authorizes the deception through a prospective agreement in which the subject is informed that he or she will be unaware of or misled regarding the nature or purposes of the research.

Psychology seminar table arranged for a group perception study with vertical line comparison boards, response pads, and wooden chairs Photograph of a seminar room table arranged with vertical line-judgment display boards and response sheets.

Confederates in Classic Conformity and Obedience Paradigms

In OpenStax Psychology 2e section 12.4, a confederate is a person who is aware of the experiment and works for the researcher while true, naïve participants believe that confederates are uninformed participants; Asch (1955) found that 76% of participants conformed to group pressure at least once by indicating the incorrect line.

In Milgram’s (1963) obedience study, 40 men were recruited who believed they gave confederate learners electric shocks increasing in 15-volt increments all the way up to 450 volts; 65% of participants continued to the maximum voltage, dropping to 48% in an office building, 40% with the learner in the same room, 30% when hands were touching, and 23% by phone.

In his partial replication of Milgram’s obedience studies, Burger (2009) employed a 150-volt solution—stopping the study seconds after participants decided what to do at the critical juncture—based on the observation that 79 per cent of Milgram’s (1963) participants who continued past the 150-volt level continued all the way to the end of the shock generator’s range.

To minimize risks and deception in psychological research, investigators can make changes to the research design, prescreen to identify and eliminate high-risk participants, and provide participants with as much information as possible during informed consent and debriefing.

Debriefing in Psychology Studies, Mood Repair, and Data Withdrawal

For related laboratory debriefing scripts and review items, see our classroom Stroop effect plan and debriefing guide and our psychology research methods practice questions.

Under APA Standard 8.07(c), psychologists explain any deception that is an integral feature of the design and conduct of an experiment to participants as early as is feasible, preferably at the conclusion of their participation, but no later than at the conclusion of the data collection, and permit participants to withdraw their data.

Under APA Standard 8.08, (a) psychologists provide a prompt opportunity for participants to obtain appropriate information about the nature, results, and conclusions of the research and take reasonable steps to correct any misconceptions, and (b) if scientific or humane values justify delaying or withholding this information, they take reasonable measures to reduce the risk of harm.

Under Section 4 of the BPS Code of Human Research Ethics, participants should be free during the data gathering phase to withdraw or modify their consent and to ask for the destruction of all or part of the data that they have contributed within agreed and consented limits.

Under Article 3.7B of the Canadian Tri-Council Policy Statement, debriefing must be a part of all research involving an alteration to consent requirements under Article 3.7A whenever it is possible, practicable, and appropriate, and participants in such research must have the opportunity to refuse consent and request the withdrawal of their data and/or human biological materials whenever possible, practicable, and appropriate under Article 3.1.

Under Section 10 of the BPS Code of Human Research Ethics, in some circumstances the verbal description of the nature of the investigation will not be sufficient to eliminate all possibility of harmful after-effects; for example, following an experiment in which negative mood was induced, it would be ethical to induce a happy mood state before the participant leaves the experimental setting.

Quiet psychology consultation table with two chairs, an open folder, a pen, and an office paper shredder beside the desk Photograph of a quiet post-study consultation table with an open folder and an office paper shredder beside the desk.

Classroom and Student Study Ethics Self-Audit Worksheet

The reflection questions below help students and instructors review a draft study protocol.

Review Area Protocol Design Focus Self-Audit Reflection Question
Opening summary Presenting the study purpose, task sequence, and session length How clearly does the opening paragraph explain what participants will do and why they might or might not wish to take part?
Voluntary participation Protecting student autonomy and offering non-research credit options What alternative learning activities are available for students who prefer not to participate or who decide to stop early?
Privacy and record storage Separating personal identifiers from collected response sheets How are participant responses stored so that personal identities remain protected throughout data analysis?
Hypothesis disclosure Evaluating whether withholding the specific prediction is necessary Can the research question be investigated transparently without using a cover story or confederate?
Post-session debriefing Explaining the study design, answering questions, and confirming data use How does the closing script explain the research hypothesis and invite participants to ask questions or withdraw their responses?

Sources

  • American Psychological Association, Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, Research and Publication
  • Electronic Code of Federal Regulations, Protection of Human Subjects, General Requirements and Documentation for Informed Consent
  • British Psychological Society, Code of Human Research Ethics
  • Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, and Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, Tri-Council Policy Statement on Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans, Consent Process
  • OpenStax, Psychology textbook sections on Research Ethics and Conformity and Obedience
  • Rajiv Jhangiani, I-Chant Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, and Dana Leighton, Research Methods in Psychology, Research Ethics
  • Allan Kimmel, Deception in Psychological Research, The Psychologist
  • Jeffrey Barnett, Informed Consent in Clinical Practice, Society for the Advancement of Psychotherapy